INTRODUCTION:

This project is much more than an attempt to provide a social history of men in the inter-war period. The International Brigades are indictive of more than just social and cultural ideas and how they were changing, and certainly go beyond the issue of a purely political phenomenon. The politics and social context which encouraged men to join up to fight in Spain can be seen as specifically linked to movements which involved issues of mens identities and masculinity. This can be seen in the reaction against the male militarism of fascism, and the brotherhood of men developing through wide interest in socialism. This different perspective can consider the centrality of gender to understanding the importance of armed fighting in the Civil War for the men involved. The Spanish Civil War is not an appealing subject of study simply as dramatic event but as a unique manifestation of the world of masculinity and men in the 1930's. The issues involved begin with training in public schools and the collective memory of the Great War which were shared by boys growing up in the 1920's and 1930's. The progressive and radical ideologies which many of these young men allied themselves with had particular appeal to them as men, opposed a conservative masculine identity and offered the possibility of certain kinds of relationships between men. Looking at British men who volunteered to fight in Spain, some with the International Brigades and some with various branches of the Spanish militia, as well as those who attempted to contribute in some other manner can provide a very rich interpretation of British masculinity before the Second World War and highlight the key issues. The ideas and attitudes of these volunteers can illuminate the legacy of World War One for British society and the changing relationship between culture, war and masculinity in the first half of the twentieth century. The memory of World War One lingered on in the minds of the men too young to have fought, and even pacifists mourned missing the event which they thought had been the greatest test of manhood for the generation before them. Men had gender specific enclaves such as the public school and government but none of these had the important insularity of a war situation where it was men who fought, fulfilling the role which they had been traditionally praised for. It might be surprising just how eager radical young men were to get to Spain and to get involved in the fighting, sentiments expressed by pacifists as well as by boys who had been militarily trained. Men were not content to fulfill just any role in the war, and instead expressed great frustration when action on the front was delayed. It was not merely a question of emotional attachment to the stories of World War One, but to war stories in general. It is necessary to trace men's changing attitudes towards war and the way stories about war evolved after the First World War in order to attempt to answer why men chose fighting as an expression of their beliefs. In their writings these men reflect on their feelings about war as boys and their expectations of the situation in Spain. Within these narratives only certain stories can be accommodated and themes such as the involvement of women are never more than peripheral. Despite the radical social ideology that many men brought to Spain they were still limited by the ways in which their generation imagined masculine and feminine identities and their relationship to armed conflict.

The experiences of volunteers in Spain can be used to consider how relationships were formed between men in Spain and how they were affected by ideas about masculinity, comradeship and socialism. This is a subject rarely broached in historical literature but an important one in addressing how men constructed their identity as part of a specific politically and socially oriented fighting group. The differences between fascism and socialism for them were not merely political, but essentially social, and their articulations of the role of men in society were one of the major points of contention. There were many different kinds of relationships between men in Spain and at the front, but these were all affected in some way by the ideal of "comradeship" which had a different emphasis in Spain than it had during other wars. This sense of camaraderie with other men is a feature common to many armies and wars but there was a special emphasis on this element in the revolutionary atmosphere of Spain. There was a tension between relaxation and fighting with one's fellow soldiers and the sense of solitary duty which had driven many men to volunteer in the first place. Despite these ideals of comradeship, there were still strict ideas about the characteristics of a "real soldier" and men who fell outside these categories were regarded in different ways. To be unmanly among ones soldier comrades could involve effeteness and possible homosexuality or overly brash and individualistic behaviour. The society of equals in war could not always extend to certain types and groups and this included women who, despite their involvement in the struggle, could not be imagined as part of the fighting community. Instead they were symbols of peace and relief, or of pure dedication without the trials of the front. Revolutionary ideas could not reform the centrality of masculine experience in war or the sense that to be fighting among good men was enough to legitimize the fighting situation as a whole.

All of these concerns can be addressed by examining the writings of some of the Britsh men who fought in the International Brigades, Spanish militia units, or those who volunteered as non-combatants. The struggle in Spain seemed to them to embody their personal, political and social ideals at the historical moment and was a defining moment for many radicals including those who stayed at home but embraced the War as their cause. Most volunteers went to fight, but many others went to show their support in other ways: as medical workers, observers, or as part of official delegations. Those who went to Spain included famous writers such as Stephen Spender and W.H. Auden, young political notables like Esmond Romilly and John Cornford and numerous men (and a smaller number of women) from all sectors of British life. The majority of volunteers were members of the working class, men who had been introduced to events in Spain through their political networks, but a significant number were middle class men. Many of these volunteers later reflected on their intense experiences in Spain, detailing how they understood the experience of war, politics, soldiering and personal relationships throughout their time in Spain. Most express some kind of disillusionment and did not stay until the end of the war, but many others did remain until defeat was certain, which itself was a disillusioning experience. The kind of restless energy which had driven men to Spain did not reappear in the years following the War, when the dedication and romanticism of the 1930's began to fade or was channelled in different directions.